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In the previous line I have specified that the users in User_Alias OPERATORS (bob, jane, paul, and mary) are able to use the mount, raidstart, and raidstop commands and the named command. The next type of alias you can define is a command alias, Cmnd_Alias, which groups collections of commands. Cmnd_Alias DNS_COMMANDS = /usr/local/sbin/rndc,(named) /usr/local/sbin/named You can use this alias in conjunction with the previous alias. OPERATORS ALL=/bin/mount,DNS_COMMANDS Now all users defined in the alias OPERATORS can use the commands /bin/mount and all those commands defined in the command alias DNS_COMMANDS on ALL hosts. You can also specify an alias that groups a collection of hosts. The Host_Alias alias can specify lists of host names, IP addresses, and networks. Host_Alias DNS_SERVERS = elephant,tiger,bear You can combine this alias with the preceding ones you have defined. OPERATORS DNS_SERVERS=DNS_COMMANDS Now all users specified in the OPERATORS alias can run the commands specified in DNS_COMMANDS on the hosts defined in the DNS_SERVERS alias group. You can also negate aliases by placing an exclamation (!) mark in front of them. Let s look at an example of this. First you define a command alias with some commands you do not want users to use, and then you can use that alias in conjunction with a sudo configuration line. Cmnd_Alias DENIED_COMMANDS = /bin/su,/bin/mount,/bin/umount bob puppy=/bin/*,!DENIED_COMMANDS Here the user bob can use all the commands in the /bin directory on the puppy host except those defined in the DENIED_COMMANDS command alias.

s Caution This looks like a great method of securing commands via sudo, but unfortunately it is relatively

easy to get around negating commands simply by copying or moving the denied command from the directory you have denied it in to another location. You should be aware of this risk when using negated aliases.

ForAll Operator()

Let s look at one of the other ways you can authorize users to sudo. Inside the sudoers file you can define another type of alias based on the group information in your system by prefixing the group name with %. %groupname ALL=(ALL) ALL Replace groupname with the name of a group defined on your system. This means all members of the defined group are able to execute whatever commands you authorize for them, in this case ALL commands on ALL hosts. On Red Hat a group called wheel already exists for this

purpose, and if you uncomment the following line on your Red Hat system, then any users added to the wheel group will have root privileges on your system. %wheel ALL=(ALL) ALL Additionally, the sudoers file itself also has a number of options and defaults you can define to change the behavior of the sudo command. For example, you can configure sudo to send e-mail when the sudo command is used. To define who to send that e-mail to, you can use the option on the following line: mailto "admin@puppy.yourdomain.com" You can then modify when sudo sends that e-mail using further options. mail_always on To give you an idea of the sort of defaults and options available to you, Table 1-8 defines a list of the e-mail related options. Table 1-8. Send E-mail When sudo Runs

Sends e-mail every time a user runs sudo. This flag is set off by default. Sends e-mail if the user running sudo does not enter the correct password. This flag is set to off by default. Sends e-mail if the user running sudo does not exist in the sudoers file. This flag is set to on by default. Sends e-mail if the user running sudo exists in the sudoers file but is not authorized to run commands on this host. This flag is set to off by default. Sends e-mail if the user running sudo exists in the sudoers file but they do not have authority to the command they have tried to run. This flag is set to off by default.

Iterating through the results of a LINQ query requires that all the output be merged together. If results ordering is not important, you should use the ForAll() operator, which avoids merging the results set, thus executing more quickly: query.ForAll(result => Console.WriteLine(result));

There are a number of other options and defaults you can see in the sudoers man page. The sudo command itself can also have some command-line options you can issue with it. Table 1-9 shows some of the most useful options. Table 1-9. sudo Command-Line Options

Prints a list out the allowed (and forbidden) commands for the current user on the current host Lists any default options set in the sudoers file Runs the given command in the background Runs the specified command as a user other than root

The -l option is particularly useful to allow you to determine what commands the current user on the current host is authorized and forbidden to run.

puppy# sudo -l Password: User bob may run the following commands on this host: (root) ALL The sudo command is complicated and if improperly implemented can open your system to security exposures. I recommend you carefully test any sudo configuration before you implement it and you thoroughly explore the contents of the sudo and sudoers man pages.